The Falcon of Andalus

['Abdu'r-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya, arrived in Andalus after spending five years travelling across the North African desert as a fugitive, fleeing from the Abbasids who had seized power from the Umayyads. He landed in Andalus in 755 CE and soon many people rallied around him. He captured Cordoba on the day of the 'Id al-Adha 756 CE. In 777, an envoy from the Abbasid Khalifate visited King Charlemagne in the south of France. They arranged to incite a rebellion within Andalus with the help of Abbasid supporters which was to coincide with an invasion from the north led by Charlemagne. Abdur-Rahman quelled the Abbasid uprising before Charlemagne could cross into Andalus. When Charlemagne did finally enter the country in 778, he was soon forced to retreat, and suffered great losses in the famous ambush at Roncesvalles. Later, Charlemagne came to an agreement with Abdur-Rahman not to invade Andalus, even offering him his daughter as a wife, an offer which Abdur-Rahman politely declined.

'Abdu'r-Rahman I began the building of the great mosque in Cordoba in 786. He was also responsible for the building of a thick, strong wall around Cordoba. Furthermore, he ensured that mosques, public baths, bridges and castles were erected in every province of his dominions. The Muslims introduced the cultivation of sugar-cane, cotton and rice, as well as fruits such as the peach, the orange, the pomegranate and the date-palm. Not a patch of land was left uncultivated by their indefatigable efforts, and Andalus was filled with growth. They were unsurpassed in all the skilful trades. They started the culture of silk in Andalus, and it was through them that the arts of making paper and glass eventually passed into Europe. The potteries of Malaga, the cloth of Murcia, the silk of Almeria and Granada, the leather hangings of Cordoba, the weapons of Toledo, were renowned everywhere. Their strict fidelity to their engagements became proverbial. The Muslims were temperate in their behaviour and in satisfying their appetites. There were no beggars among them, for they took affectionate care of their poor and their orphans. As Andalus became renowned for its prosperity, people from all over the known world flocked to live there, and its new capital, Cordoba, became a centre of learning and knowledge.]

The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) said that anyone who wanted to govern and who desired power over people was not fit to govern. As the example of the rightly-guided Khalifs (Caliphs) demonstrated, only those who were most in awe of, and who had the most knowledge of the deen of Islam, and who lacked any desire for power, were capable of true leadership. Furthermore, none of them either chose their sons, or even advised that they be chosen, as their successors. As soon as the Muslims who came after them opted for dynastic rule, it was only a matter of time before individuals who were totally unsuited to govern became rulers, and this is what happened with the Umayyads.

After the unique and exemplary khalifate of 'Umar ibn'Abd'al-'Aziz, it was inevitable that there should be a movement to depose a dynastic khalifate which had become so tyrannical - simply because the new khalifs had ceased to be elected in accordance with the Qur'an and the practice of the Prophet Muhammad and the first four rightly-guided Khalifs, may the blessings and peace of Allah be on him and them.

The Abbasids not only attempted to murder all the known members of the Umayyad family once they had seized the khalifate, but also then proceeded to retain the khalifate within their own family, in exactly the same manner as the tyrants whom they had just deposed - and accordingly with exactly the same long-term results.

'Abdu'r-Rahman was one of the few members of the Umayyad family to escape with his life. When the slaughter of his relatives began in earnest, he managed to make his way to Rah, near the Euphrates. He had scarcely arrived, however, when he was informed that his Abbasid pursuers had surrounded the house in which they were hiding. He and his brother, who was only thirteen, ran from the house and plunged into the Euphrates. 'Abdu'r-Rahman reached the other side and witnessed the death of his brother who had turned back after being told by his pursuers that they would not harm him, and who was beheaded on the spot as soon as he was within their grasp. After much wandering and several more narrow escapes, 'Abdu'r-Rahman arrived on the shores of Africa facing Andalus, with no possibility of ever returning to his homeland.

The clashes which occurred among Muslims over leadership and possession of the new dominions in al-Andalus were inevitable. In the forty years following the treaty of the surrender of the city of Orihuela (713 CE) there were twenty-one governors who followed each other in rapid succession, sometimes appointed by the Khalif in Damascus, sometimes by the governor of Qayrawan in North Africa, and sometimes by the Muslims of Andalus themselves.

'Abdu'r-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya, arrived in Andalus after spending five years travelling across the North African desert as a fugitive, fleeing from the Abbasids who had seized power from the descendants of the Companion of the Prophet Muhammad, Mu'awiya, who are generally referred to as the Umayyads. It is clear that he was fleeing from people who called themselves Muslims, but who were not acting as Muslims - a description which could equally be applied to those whom the Abbasids deposed.

The persecution which had driven him to this point, however, had brought the Muslims of Andalus the leader they needed. They were on the brink of civil war, and the best of them welcomed 'Abdu'r-Rahman as their new ruler. He landed in Andalus in 755 and soon many people rallied around him. Since their number was far greater than those who opposed him, he had little difficulty in defeating his opponents on the banks of the Guadalquivir on Friday the 9th of Dhu'l Hijja, 138 AH (756 CE). Cordoba was captured the following day, the day of the 'Id al-Adha, and a general amnesty was granted to all those who accepted him as their Amir.

'Abdu'r-Rahman I soon proved himself to be an able governor. He set about uniting all the different tribes and groups of people in Andalus. Initially he had to deal not only with rebellions from within Andalus itself, but also from the attacks organised by the Abbasid Khalifs of the East from without. His technique was very simple: he was swift to execute the leaders of those who tried to depose him, and quick to forgive any of their followers who subsequently accepted him.

In 763, he repelled an attack made by sea in the south, and had its Abbasid leaders executed. In 777, an envoy from the Abbasid Khalifate visited King Charlemagne in the south of France. They arranged to incite a rebellion within Andalus with the help of Abbasid supporters which was to coincide with an invasion from the north led by Charlemagne. The twin attacks were not coordinated, however, and 'Abdu'r-Rahman quelled the Abbasid uprising before Charlemagne could cross into Andalus. When Charlemagne did finally enter the country in 778, he was soon forced to retreat, and suffered great losses in the famous ambush at Roncesvalles. Later, Charlemagne came to an agreement with 'Abdu'r-Rahman not to invade Andalus, even offering him his daughter as a wife, an offer which 'Abdu'r-Rahman politely declined.

The disputes between the other tribes, and between the different nationalities and ethnic groups in Andalus were far less serious than the main Umayyad/ Abbasid and Muslim/Christian conflicts and were soon settled. By dealing with all uprisings and disputes in a sure and straightforward manner, 'Abdu'r-Rahman won the respect and admiration of the people of Andalus, who no longer desired to look elsewhere for a leader, so stirring was the example he set. Peace and balance were established. As Pascual de Gayangos points out, even the nomadic Berbers began to settle down:

For a long time after the conquest of Spain the Berbers continued to lead a nomadic life, shifting their quarters from one end of the peninsula to the other, and taking their wives and children with them even when engaged in military expeditions. Ibnu'l-Abbar (Nat. Lib. Madrid, fo. 127) says that 'Abdu'r-Rahman I of Cordova was the first who conquered their roving habits, made them build villages and towns, and subjected them to a more sedentary life. [Pascual de Gayangos, Muhammadan Dynasties in Spain, Vol. II.]

As well as being known as 'the Hawk of the Quraysh', 'Abdu'r Rahman I also came to be called 'the Falcon of Andalus', and during his rule which lasted between 756 and 788, the Muslims of Andalus, old and new, were unified and established in the worship of their Creator. He unified the numerous communities of Muslims which had sprung up in Andalus. He ruled for 33 years and 4 months. He never lost a battle. The following description of him is quoted by Al-Maqqari:

Ibn Zaydun says that 'Abdu'r-Rahman had a clear complexion and reddish hair; he had high check-bones, with a mole on his face: he was tall and slender in body, wore his hair parted in two ringlets...[Gayangos, Vol. II.]

According to Ibn Hayyan, he was kind-hearted and well-disposed to mercy [Gayangos, Vol. I.]:

He was eloquent in his speech and was endowed with a quick perception; he was very slow in his determination, but constant and persevering in carrying them into effect; he was exempt from all weakness and prompt in his movements; he was active and stirring; he would never lie in repose or abandon himself to indulgence; he never entrusted the affairs of the government to any one, but administered them himself, yet he never failed to consult on such difficult cases as occurred, with people of wisdom and experience; he was a brave and intrepid warrior, always the first in the field; he was terrible in his anger and could bear no opposition to his will; he could speak with much fluency and elegance; he was likewise a good poet, and composed verses ex tempore; he was in short, a beneficent generous and munificent prince. He always dressed in white, and wore a turban of the same color which he preferred to any other; his countenance inspired with awe all those who approached him, whether friends or foes. He used to attend funerals and recite prayers over the dead; he often prayed with the people when he attended the mosque on Fridays and other festivals, on which occasions he was in the habit of ascending the minbar, and addressing his subjects therefrom. He visited the sick and mixed with the people, attending their rejoicings and recreations.

'Abdu'r-Rahman I made his capital Cordoba and throughout his reign he embellished it by works which he superintended himself. One of his first acts was to supply Cordoba with water by means of an aqueduct which came from the neighboring mountains. He planted a most delightful garden to which he gave the name of Munyat ar-Risafah in remembrance of a splendid villa near Damascus, which his grandfather Hisham had built and where he had spent the first years of his life. Being passionately fond of flowers, he commissioned an intelligent botanist to procure for him in the East such among the fruits and plants of that region as could be naturalized in Andalus; and in this manner he introduced the peach and the pomegranate called safari.

'Abdu'r-Rahman I also began the building of the great mosque in Cordoba in 786. It was built on the site of the ancient Cathedral of Cordoba, which he had purchased from the Christians for the sum of 100,000 gold dinars the year before work started. He was also responsible for the building of a thick, strong wall around Cordoba. Furthermore, he ensured that mosques, public baths, bridges and castles were erected in every province of his dominions.

Inspired by 'Abdu'r-Rahman's enthusiasm and zest for life, the early Muslims of Andalus transformed the country into a garden. They imported plants and fruits from other lands and introduced new methods of agriculture. The wonderful system of irrigation by which they converted Valencia into 'the garden of Europe' still exists, and the elaborate and equitable allotment of water is looked on with admiration by the 'experts' of today. The Muslims introduced the cultivation of sugar-cane, cotton and rice, as well as fruits such as the peach, the orange, the pomegranate and the date-palm. Not a patch of land was left uncultivated by their indefatigable efforts, and Andalus was filled with growth.

The Muslims built mosques and public baths everywhere, even in the smallest villages, and as they became established in the land, every craft and trade was taught and practised. All the raw materials, which were in abundance, whether from the mineral, plant or animal kingdoms, were transformed into merchandise and articles of every-day utility. The Muslims all worked at something. Every member of the family contributed his or her share of work for the common good. They were unsurpassed in all the skilful trades. They started the culture of silk in Andalus, and it was through them that the arts of making paper and glass eventually passed into Europe.

The potteries of Malaga, the cloth of Murcia, the silk of Almeria and Granada, the leather hangings of Cordoba, the weapons of Toledo, were renowned everywhere. They furnished the materials for profitable foreign commerce which was stimulated by the universal reputation of their merchants for honesty and sincerity. Their strict fidelity to their engagements became proverbial. The Muslims were temperate in their behaviour and in satisfying their appetites. There were no beggars among them, for they took affectionate care of their poor and their orphans. They settled all their disputes between themselves according to the Qur’an and the Sunnah of their Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace.

As Andalus became renowned for its prosperity, people from all over the known world flocked to live there, and its new capital, Cordoba, became a centre of learning and knowledge. All children were taught reading, writing and arithmetic in the mosques, as well as a basic knowledge of the Qur'an and the Hadith, and of course Arabic. From this broad base, anyone who wished to pursue their studies further could arrange to be taught by any of the many learned teachers of Andalus.

Grounded in the knowledge of the Qur’an and the life-style of their Prophet (pbuh), the Muslims of Andalus explored and benefited from every science dealing with both the seen and the unseen worlds. What pervaded all their activity in the early days of Islam in Andalus was worship of Allah and the knowledge of what comes after death. The first Muslims of Andalus knew how short a life is and lived it to the full. They knew that they were on a journey, which would continue on past death and into the next world, and which would take them either to the Garden or to the Fire - and they lived their lives and prepared for their deaths accordingly.

When the rule of 'Abdu'r-Rahman I came to its close, the same mistake was made in the West as had been made in the East: His successors were chosen from his family rather than from among those who knew and embodied the Qur'an and the Sunnah best; and feared Allah the most. There accordingly followed the usual degeneration within the community which accompanies the adoption of dynastic rule. The inevitable split between the rulers and the ruled occurred, as the former increased in wealth and the latter began to desire it.

While 'Abdu'r-Rahman I had walked freely through the streets of Cordoba and mixed with its inhabitants, his successors began to isolate themselves in their palaces. Although 'Abdu'r-Rahman carefully groomed his son Hisham, in preference over his oldest son Sulayman, to succeed him, Hisham I never appeared in public without a guard, although he was a man who heard and obeyed his Lord. Hisham died in the year 180 AH (796 CE) after a prosperous reign of seven years and nine months. He is counted among the good and virtuous monarchs. He completed the construction of the great mosque of Cordova, which his father had begun. He had also the merit of not exacting from his Muslim subjects more taxes than the zakat or tithe prescribed by the Qur'an and the Sunnah (traditionary law). He instituted a night-watch composed of honest citizens, who went their rounds; and if any disturber of the public peace was apprehended, he was fined according to his offence: the produce of the fines was then sent to poor people.