POSITIVE THEORY OF THE WESTERN REVOLUTION; OR GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE TWOFOLD MODERN MOVEMENT

POSITIVE THEORY OF THE WESTERN REVOLUTION; OR GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE TWOFOLD MODERN MOVEMENT I. RETROSPECTIVE SUMMARY421 II. ABSTRACT APPRECIATION424 Nature and Purpose424 Organisation434 Course446 III. CONCRETE APPRECIATION452 First Phase (Spontaneous)452 NegativeThe sections in this chapter headed 'Negative Movement' correspond to, and take the place of, the sections headed 'Affective or Social' in the preceding chapters 452 Spiritual453 Temporal454 Positive457 Philosophic and Scientific457 Aesthetic460 Practical or Industrial461 Second Phase (Protestant)464 Negative464 Spiritual464 Temporal473 Positive478 Scientific479 Philosophic482 Aesthetic484 Practical or Industrial488 Third Phase (Deistic)492 Negative492 Retrogression492 Spiritual Advance495 Temporal Advance496 Positive502 Philosophic502 Scientific505 Aesthetic508 Practical or Industrial508 IV. FRENCH REVOLUTION509 Negative510 Positive526 Philosophic526 Scientific528 I. RETROSPECTIVE SUMMARY (pp. 421-424)421 The three Beliefs and their results422 The three Transitions and their results423 The Relative Spirit and Pacific Activity still remained to be developed422 The old synthesis could not direct their development ; the final synthesis was still unformed.422 Hence the anarchical character of the Revolutionary Transition ; during which, however, elements of new order were forming423 The previous Transitions, though revolutionary, had never been without a partial synthesis424 II. ABSTRACT APPRECIATION (pp. 424-452)424 (1) Nature and purpose of Modern Transition (pp. 421--134)424 It was mainly Intellectual, though its ultimate purpose was social424 Critical or Negative doctrine introduced425 Contrast between Constructive and Destructive forms of the revolutionary spirit426 The Destructive spirit was indispensable to reconstruction, no compromise with Theologism being possible426 Before the Reformation Theologism was felt to be incompatible with Intellectual progress427 And with Social progress427 For it was hostile to Physical science, to Sociological (or Mental) science, and to Moral science428 The destruction of Theologism therefore needed to be complete429 Imaginary picture of an Emancipation carried out by the Monastic Orders429 Why such an issue was impossible430 Complete Negativism of the scientific thinkers431 Incomplete Negativism of the Metaphysicians431 Scientific Negativism would have sunk into hypocritical dilettantism but for popular earnestness432 Which however, at first, for want of enlightenment, leant to Incomplete Negativism432 Thus people were spared the disastrous consequences of being without a Synthesis433 Some of the scientific men aimed at an Objective Synthesis433 (2) Organisation of the Modern Transition (pp. 434-446)434 Its various concurrent forces are to be described434 First Force (fundamental): Women. Modern Transition embraced Intellect and Activity, but neglected Feeling434 Thus it discarded the only source of synthesis and broke with the Past435 Women alone, by their regret for the Middle Age, prevented a complete break of Continuity435 Thus the feminine influence was the condition site quâ non of the Modern Transition436 Second Force (fundamental): Science. Mathematical and Astronomical studies resumed436 And the other branches of Natural Philosophy pursued437 Positive hearing of the Scientific movement437 Negative bearing439 Third Force (fundamental) : Industry. Its Positive bearing438 Urban industry alone to be considered439 Rural industry remained disorganised because the landlords were not an industrial class439 Grand division of the Industrial Class440 The Employers440 The Employed441 Negative bearing of Industry. It stimulated Complete and bridled Incomplete Emancipation441 Mutwil reaction of Scientific and Industrial movements442 Fundamental Fore-s, affective, intellectual, and practical442 Fourth Force (accessory) : Art :442 Heterogeneous forces contributing to Modern Transition443 Fifth Force (heterogeneous) : the State443 Sixth Force (heterogeneous): the Church444 Subordinate forces instrumental to Modern Transition445 Seventh Force (instrumental) : the Legists445 Eighth Force (instrumental) : the Metaphysicians446 (3) Course of the Modern Transition (pp. 446-452)446 During the first two centuries it was spontaneous, not systematic446 The Critical doctrine sprang from, and did not originate, the decay of the Catholic-Feudal regime447 Private judgement was exercised before it was claimed as a Right447 Catholic organisation broke down before Catholic doctrine447 Rise of the three Absolute and Negative Dogmas : Right of Private Judgement, Sovereignty of People, and Equality448 Revolt of Netherlands and English Rebellion448 These Dogmas directly defeated retrogression, and indirectly led to substitution of Relative for Absolute448 Spontaneous phase common to West449 Attitude towards Systematic phase of England and Germany; of Italy and Spain ; of France449 It was desirable that the Systematic phase should not prevail everywhere449 Systematic phase divided into Protestantism and Deism. The latter prevailed chiefly in France450 Chronological determination of the Three Phases451 Gradual aggravation of anarchical symptoms451 Accompanied by growth of Positive and Industrial reconstruction452 III. CONCRETE APPRECIATION (pp. 452-509)452 (1) First, or Spontaneous Phase, A.D. 1300-1500 (pp. 452-464)452 (a) Negative movement (pp. 452-457)452 (i) Spiritual decomposition. Popes at Avignon453 National Churches resist authority of Pope. Great Councils,453 National Churches become dependent on Governments; and corrupt463 (ii) Temporal decomposition. Concentration of power454 Two forms of Dictatorship454 Monarchical (or normal) form exemplified in France454 Aristocratic (or incomplete) form in Venice and England455 Moral office of Aristocracy under Monarchies455 Especially of noble ladies458 The Maid of Orleans455 Paid Armies and Taxation455 Standing Army of Charles VII.456 Lawyers check arbitrary government and secure property.456 Political immorality systematised. Machiavelli and Caesar Borgia457 (b) Positive movement (pp. 457-464)457 (i) Philosophic and Scientific Results. These were only preparatory, the time not being even now come for the decisive step in Astronomy457 Nicholas of Cusa457 Still speculation was for a time encyclopaedic458 Healthy study of Astrology and Alchemy458 Importance of Chemistry as n link in the scientific chain458 Philosopher's stone : Elixir vitae459 Reaction of Physical Science on Philosophy460 (ii) Aesthetic Results. The Divina Commedia; its modern spirit460 Mystic compositions460 The Imitatio Christi of Thomas à Kempis falsely attributed to Gerson460 St. Theresa461 (iii) Practical or Industrial Results461 Nature of Industrial movement. Manufacture and inland trade predominate over foreign commerce461 Organisation of Industrial movement; relation of employers and employed; their political attitude462 Jacques Coeur and Cosmo de' Medici the Elder462 Results of Industrial movement462 The inventions of this phase to be explained by its general characteristics462 Fire-arms463 Printing463 Discovery of America and of sea route to India463 Mariners' compass463 Arithmetical improvements464 Positive movement spontaneous during the First Phase464 (2) Second or Protestant Phase, A.D. 1500-1685 (pp. 464-492)464 (a) Negative Movement (pp. 464-478)464 (i) Spiritual decomposition (pp. 464-473)464 Tenets of Luther, Calvin, and Socinus destitute of originality and intellectual vigour465 To Southern Europe they were intellectually contemptible and morally repulsive465 Superior emancipation of South shown by its appreciation of Dante and Cervantes465 The Northern nations were as backward intellectually as they were socially466 Imaginary hypothesis of a voluntary wind-up of the Catholic Organisation by the Pope in 1376466 The Reformation would then have been avoided467 Intellectual dogma of Protestantism : Right of Private Judgement467 Social dogmas of Protestantism: Sovereignty of People and Equality468 William the Silent and Cromwell468 These dogmas were equally active in the so-called Catholic countries.468 The Critical doctrine impaired sense of Continuity and Veneration, and fostered Pride469 Deterioration of private life. Introduction of Divorce469 Luther and Melanchthon authorise Philip of Hesse to have two wives at once469 Noble attempt of Loyola to arrest decline of religion470 His aim was to establish a supplementary Pope and Clergy, to substitute the Virgin for God, and to take the lead in scientific education and foreign missions470 Sociocratic character of early Jesuitism471 Its success impossible471 Conspiracy between Jesuits and Freethinkers against popular enfranchisement472 Disastrous introduction of Colleges for the young472 Resistance to Jesuits in all Catholic countries472 The degenerate modern Catholicism is more properly called Jesuitism473 (ii) Temporal decomposition (pp. 473-476).473 Consisted during this Phase in further and systematic usurpation by State of spiritual powers473 Which was acquiesced in by Priesthood474 Protestantism at first allied itself with the Tudors in England, and with the Condés, Châtillons, and Rohans, in France474 But finally accepted Dictatorship of Crown in France, and of Aristocracy in England475 Dictatorship was no sooner established than its decline began476 Francis I. at Pavia475 Legists and Metaphysicians cease to be useful476 The Negative movement extended to Islamism477 Which began to decline when it lost the hope of universality477 Battle of Lepanto477 7 Comparison between Islamism and Protestantism477 The Revolution always remained in the Spontaneous stage in the East477 (b) Positive movement (pp. 478-492)478 This was common to East and West, and was more systematic than during First Phase478 Encouragement by Dictatorial Governments479 (i) Scientific Results479 Doctrine of Double motion of the Earth at last became socially opportune479 And was therefore accepted even before it was conclusively demonstrated480 Its special scientific consequences. Discoveries of Kepler, Galileo, and Newton481 Physics instituted as a separate science481 Discoveries of Descartes and Leibnitz481 All these discoveries were connected logically and scientifically with the new Astronomy482 (ii) Philosophic Results. The new Astronomy inaugurated Positivism482 Synthetic attempts of Descartes, Bacon, and their successors, Hobbes, Leibnitz, and Bossuet483 Growth of an anarchical specialism484 (iii) Aesthetic Results484 Grand poetic development484 In spite of Protestantism485 Ariosto anti Tasso485 Cervantes and Calderon486 Shakespeare, Corneille, and Molière486 Milton487 The Special Arts, particularly Painting487 Art a bond of union to the West487 General study of Italian language488 (iv) Practical or Industrial Results488 State patronage of Industry prompted by perception of services it could render488 Governments tend to become directors of national wealth489 Voluntary character of Pacific Activity becomes distinctly marked489 Paltry ambition of Employers. Growth of industrial manners among Workmen490 Manufacturing industry becomes predominant. Spanish and English colonisation contrasted491 Negro slavery worst in colonies of Protestant and Aristocratic nations491 Colonial system contributed to Revolutionary Movement492 (3) Third Or Deistic Phase, A.D. 1685-1789 (pp. 492-502)492 (a) Negative Movement (pp. 492-502)492 Subdivided into three periods of Retrogression, Spiritual Advance, and Tem poral Advance492 (i) Retrogression in Monarchical countries, France, Spain492 Louis XIV. becomes reactionary under influence of Mme de Maintenon493 Fails to destroy religious equilibrium established by Peace of Westphalia494 Retrogression in Aristocratic countries ; England after Cromwell494 League of nobility, landed gentry, and bourgeoisie against progress494 (ii) Spiritual Advance. France resumes her normal primacy496 Negativism popularised by Voltaire and French Deists, who attack the Church, but respect Civil institutions496 (iii) Temporal Advance. Rousseau attacks Civil institutions, but props up Theologism496 Third or Organic school of completely emancipated thinkers497 Diderot and Frederick the central figures of a glorious group498 Diderot, aided by d'Alembert, causes the two Incomplete schools to co-operate in the Encyclopaedia499 Rousseau did but popularise a doctrine formulated by Helvetius499 To the Organic school also belonged the Jurists and Political Economists500 Disastrous effects of Negativism on public and private life500 Through which, however, appear the first aspirations towards the Final Regeneration501 Three triumphs of Negativism: Suppression of Jesuits; Administration of Turgot; American Revolution501 (b) Positive movement (pp. 502-509)502 This remained preparatory502 (i) Philosophic Results. These now resume primary importance502 Steps towards Relativity. Hume, Diderot, and Kant503 Preparations for Sociology. Statical contributions. of Vico and Montesquieu503 Dynamical contributions of Fontenelle, Hume, Leroy, and Diderot504 Historical studies. Hume, Robertson, and Voltaire504 (ii) Scientific Results505 Astronomy finally completed and restricted to the solar system505 Chemistry acquires a Positive character506 Lavoisier's theory of Combustion506 Biology: theory of Classification507 Growth of Specialism507 (iii) Aesthetic Results. Poetry takes the shape of Novels508 Self-sacrifice of Voltaire508 Operatic music508 (iv) Practical or Industrial Results. Banking and Machinery508 Commerce united with, and made to flourish by, War509 IV. THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (pp. 509-531)509 (a) Negative movement (pp. 510-526)510 Explosion inevitable and indispensable; Reasons why it was subversive510 First Reason: it was presided over by Rousseauists510 Second Reason : apparent success of revolutions directed by Negativism elsewhere511 Third Reason: incapacity of Louis XVI.512 He should have either assumed the position of Republican Dictator, or abdicated512 Superiority of Louis XVIII512 Fourth Reason: Anglomania leading to Constitutionalism in first two Assemblies, and to Parliamentarianism in Convention512 Dantonians alone bad a true conception of Revolutionary Government. Their prominence after 31st of May513 Suppression of the Academies514 Robespierre's attempt to regenerate society on Rousseauist principles discredited them514 The Revolutionary century beginning in 1789 lies between the death of Theologism and the decisive advent of Positivism515 Its first five years showed the impossibility of founding anything on Metaphysical doctrine of Rights of Man515 Dantonians saw the need of a true religion. Worship of Goddess of Reason inadequate515 A Dictatorship needed to preserve order, with freedom of thought and discussion516 But this Dictatorship being necessarily retrograde in principle could not do its work well516 Bonaparte re-establishes Church517 Suppresses Academy of 'floral and Political Sciences, but establishes the University517 Course of the Dictatorship during first two generations of the Revolutionary century518 Retrogression dated from Robespierre's establishment of Deism518 And reached its maximum when Bonaparte revived Catholicism and Militarism518 Catholic revival. De Maistre exposes weakness of Negativism; but faith continues to decline519 Military revival; French people to be blamed more than Bonaparte519 But military spirit continues to decline520 Louis XVIII. inaugurates long peace and less reactionary government520 Vices of Parliamentarianism520 Coalition of Bonapartists and Robespierrists521 Deplorable influence of Béranger521 Mischievous interference of Europe with France after Waterloo521 Holy Alliance522 Rise of Socialism522 Anarchical doctrines extended to Family and Property522 The long peace promoted, and was promoted by, the rise of the Labour question523 Peterloo massacre, and insurrection of Lyons523 The stupid incapacity of the Conservatives drove the people into Rousseauism524 Neither reactionists nor revolutionists make any way524 Parliamentary system facilitated instead of preventing oppression525 Has never been really popular except in Protestant countries525 Revolution of 1848 irrevocably abolished hereditary Monarchy525 Coup d'état irrevocably established Dictatorship526 And cleared the way for the advent of Positivism526 (b) Positive movement (pp. 526-531)526 (i) Philosophic Results527 Condorcet indicates true foundation of Sociology, but fails to create that Science 527 De Maistre revives respect for the Middle Age527 Philosophies of Condorcet and De Maistre could be harmonised only through Science528 (ii) Scientific Results. Rapid progress of Biology. Lamarck528 Bichat and Broussais528 Cabanis and Gall529 The two fundamental laws of Sociology discovered by the Author529 Insufficiency of his Positive, Philosophy remedied by his attachment to Madame Clotilde de Vaux530 Lectures on 'General View of Positivism'530 Commencement of the 'Positive Polity'530 Publication of 'General View'531 Publication of Positivist Catechism531 GENERAL CONCLUSION OF THE THIRD VOLUME532