|
| The gaths of Benares |
Indian philosophy includes a wide range of literary work. The ideas on which it elaborates are very abstract and usually dwell upon the psyche. There are a few fundamental concepts which prevail over all Indian thoughts. Depending on the philosophical style, those are accepted or proved. They contend that:
Also two general notions are of utmost importance in Hindu philosophy: Dharma and Karma. The meaning of dharma depends on the context: used on the universal plane it may be defined as the inverse of chaos, used on the individual plane it means one’s duty. Karma depicts the potential obtained as a result of actions.
Classically, when speaking about Hindu philosophy, it is the Sad Darshanas (Six Insights) which are meant, even though philosophy is omnipresent in Hindu religion, medicine and arts. A Darshana represents a school of philosophy. It is usually based on one main original book, written by a pseudo-legendary sage. Later philosophers wrote commentaries and commentaries on commentaries about the contents of these books, thus creating a large literature on each Darshana.
| Darshana | Main Book | Author | Approximate Date | Topic |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nyaaya | Nyaayasutra | Gautama (but not Buddha) | 550 B.C. | Right ways of reasoning |
| Vaisheshika | Vaisheshikasutra | Kanaada | 3rd century B.C. | Fundamental elements of the universe |
| Sankhya | Sankhyapravacanasutra and Tattvasamaasa | Kapila | 6th century B.C. | Cosmic evolution |
| Yoga | Yogasutra | Patanjali | 3rd or 4th century B.C. | Human psyche |
| Mimansa | Mimansasutra | Jaimini | 6th and 2nd century B.C. | Duty (dharma) and religious interpretation |
| Vedanta | Vedantasutra | Badarayana | Between the 5th and 2nd century B.C. | Unify the Darshanas, Vedas and Upanishads |
Usually, the six Darshanas are classified into 3 categories:
The original books mentioned above are written in the "sutra" style. A sutra (aphorism in English) is a concise and synthetic sentence, carrying a lot of meaning in a few words. Using sutras would enable the ancient sages to shrink the volume of their teachings so that their exact words could be memorised by their pupils.
Example of a sutra: "Doubt, according to some, cannot arise from irregularity of perception and non-perception, because in irregularity itself there is irregularity." Nyaayasutra, book 2, chapter 1, sutra 4.
However, it can be noticed from the above example that a sutra is rather hard to understand, and therefore requires commentaries (in a large amount!!!).
Through out the sutras, the method generally used for philosophical investigation is as follows:
Nyaaya can be translated from Sanskrit as "logical conclusion". The goal of this philosophy is to provide the pupil with the necessary tools for correct reasoning. It therefore analysis the different mental processes which are used to assert a conclusion. It classifies them, judges their validity, and explains where and when to use them.
According to Nyaaya, logics are to be used to remove doubt. Once all doubts are removed, one reaches the ultimate truth. To correctly remove doubts, one must use the "means of right knowledge", namely:
The choice of these "means of right knowledge" is justified in the Nyaayasutra, by answering several objections. Then, Gautama (founder of Nyaaya) comments upon the nature of different "objects of right knowledge": he proves that sound is non-eternal yet words are eternal, he demonstrates the theory of reincarnations, that matter is made of atoms, that the soul is distinct from the body, etc.... The resulting view point yielded by his reflections is similar to the conceptions of the Vaisheshika philosophers, yet less complete.
A distinctive feature of Nyaaya is the presentation of a syllogism made out of 5 members. This syllogism and its members are shown in the following example:
| 1 | Proposition: | The hill is fiery. |
| 2 | Reason: | Because it is smoky. |
| 3 | Example: | Whatever is smoky is fiery, as a kitchen. |
| 4 | Application: | So this hill is smoky. |
| 5 | Conclusion: | Therefore, this hill is fiery. |
In the Nyaaya philosophy, every statement is rigorously scanned by logic. However,
Gautama makes exaggerate use of abstract rationality to sustain his point of view. This
sometimes confuses the reader.
Nyaaya has had great success among the Buddhist philosophers, and is considered in
Tibet as the exclusive mean for philosophical investigation. The most renowned
commentator of Nyaaya is Vaatsyaayana, who is especially famous for his other
masterpiece : the Kama-sutra.
The term Vaisheshika is derived from the root "vishesha", which means particularity. The philosophy of Vaisheshika proceeds by rationally classifying the different feelings that man perceives, according to their particularities. Then from this classification, it speculates about the fundamental components of the cosmos.
The outcome of this reflection is the discovery of 9 ultimate substances, which may be stated as follows:
The first 4 of these substances are called the Paramaanus, which means material atom. There must be a smallest division of matter, otherwise objects would all be made of the same infinite number of particles, and a grain of rice would be of the same size than a mountain. From this reasoning, Vaisheshika postulates the existence of the Paramaanus. These Paramaanus are associated with the 4 fundamental elements (in Sanskrit the 4 Bhutas) as follows:
As far as the psyche is concerned, the Vaisheshika Darshana develops the theory that the Manas comes into contact with both the senses and the Aatman, so to bring awareness of feelings to the Aatman. Thus, the Aatman requires the Manas to be aware, and there must be as many Aatman than Manas. The Manas is the abode of reflection and imagination, whereas the Aatman is the abode of will, desire, pleasure and pain.
The Vaisheshika philosophy can be compared with Greek philosophies which also have an atomistic conception of the universe. The premises of Vaisheshika can be found in the Nyaaya, this is why those two Darshanas are grouped together.
The Sankhya is the oldest philosophy to appear in India. It establishes the basis for the
other Indian philosophies, and portrays for the first time the specific characteristics of
Asian philosophies.
It gives an account of the evolution of the universe from the primary state to the
present state. Unlike western cosmogonies which merely describe the creation of
matter, the Sankhya advocates the formation of an universal psyche from whom matter
derived.
Shankhya starts the investigation with the Subject to Object relationship. It will
actually never depart from this view point. The primary state is composed of the
Purusha (Cosmic Spirit) and the Prakriti (Cosmic Substance). The Purusha is the
Subject, it has the ability to be aware and is unalterable. The Prakriti is the Object, it
has no conscious but can be altered.
According to Sankhya, something cannot be created out of nothing. Thus, the world is
the resulting alteration of the Prakriti, and everything is contained in the Prakriti. The
Prakriti is altered by three constituent powers called the Gunas : the Sattva Guna
which is the revealing power, the Rajas Guna which is the power of action, and the
Tamas Guna which is the obstructing power. The creation begins when the equilibrium
between the three Gunas is disturbed under the influence of the Purusha. Then the
process of cosmic evolution unfolds as follows:
| Prakriti Cosmic Substance, Object of the Purusha | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mahaat Cosmic Intelligence | |||||||||
| Ahankaara Identifying Ability | |||||||||
| Manas Cosmic Mind | |||||||||
| Indriyas Cosmic Senses | |||||||||
| Jnanendriyas Cognitive Senses | Karmendriyas Action Senses | ||||||||
| Hearing | Feeling | Seeing | Tasting | Smelling | Expressing | Procreating | Excreting | Grasping | Moving |
| Tanmaatras Sensible Qualities | |||||||||
| Sound | Touch | Form | Flavour | Odour | |||||
| Mahaabhutas Fundamental Elements | |||||||||
| Ether | Air | Fire | Water | Earth | |||||
The account of cosmic evolution as described by Sankhya seems awkward if we compare it with a scientific explanation like the Big Bang theory. Though, it should not be taken out of context. The Sankhya’s starting point in the Subject-Object relationship which is totally omitted in the scientific theories. Also no one can ever overcome this relationship, thus the position of Sankhya is justified. Indeed, there is an unconscious question on everybody’s mind: "Did I create the world when I saw It, or was It there before ?". The Sankhya starts from the point of view that the subject creates the object by his perception, whereas western philosophies believe the object stood prior to the subject. Sankhya should be interpreted as the formation of the psyche in a just born child who is discovering the world.
Yoga has this unique feature of being the only philosophy which is understood through practice rather than through reading. The reasoning in the 3 previous Darshanas relied on the impressions arising from the senses and the feelings. The Yoga Darshana advocates a direct sensual contact with the truth which were logically derived in the other Darshanas.
The Yoga applies to the individual what Sankhya ascribed to the whole cosmos:
The Yoga claims that the personal soul (Jiva) is part of a Universal Soul (possibly the Purusha). Awareness of the Universal Soul leads to liberation of the personal soul from the body (Samadhi). To attain liberation, one must gradually perfect 8 disciplines (the last three are often referred to as meditation):
Yoga is the most renowned Indian philosophy. It has acquired a lot of prestige because of its practical applications. It spread out of India to the rest of Asia, propagated by Buddhism. Nowadays, it is practised by a whole variety of people, yet often removed from its original context.
The Mimansa Darshana is rather a theological school than a philosophical school. On the contrary of other Darshanas, it does not seek an ultimate truth, but emphasises more on morals and religious interpretations.
The central theme of the Mimansa is Dharma. Here, Dharma means individual duty. According to Jaimini, virtuous attitude brings about bliss in the present and future lives. Also, knowledge of ethics can only be acquired by the teachings of sages. Hence, Jaimini exhorts to perform one’s duty as enjoined in the Vedas.
To help perform one’s duty, Jaimini explains the ritual of the Vedas. He classifies the contents of the Vedas as commands (vidhi), hymns (mantra), proper nouns (naamadheya), prohibitions (nishedha), and explanations (arthavaada). The Mimansasutra contains a great number of commentaries on the sacrifices ordered in the Vedas.
Philosophically, Mimansa is poorer than the other Darshanas. Yet, it is a respectable attempt to logically analyse the sayings of the Vedas. Also, the work initiated by Jaimini laid down the foundations of the most popular Darshana of India : the Vedanta.
The Vedanta is the most widely recognised Darshana in India. It has ruled over the philosophical world of India for the last two thousand years. Popular belief attributes to it an intellectual victory in debates with other Darshanas. However, it really compiles the ideas developed in the previous Darshanas.
The Vedanta proceeds by rationally criticising the Sankhya and Vaisheshika on the one
question which they had left opened: What is the cause of creation and annihilation of
the universe?
The Vedanta contends that the above mentioned cause is Brahma (which is a principal
and not a god). Brahma represents the intelligent agent needed to account for the
deterministic evolution of the universe. It brings the world into existence, preserves it,
and finally dissolves it into the Pralaya (dissolved state of the cosmos at the end of a
creation cycle).Brahma has two aspects:
Vedanta uses highly abstract and speculative modes of thinking. Consequently, it gave rise to a number of subsequent philosophical concepts, among which: